Renaissance humanists believed that. Renaissance humanism - essay

Renaissance humanism, classical humanism is a European intellectual movement that is an important component of the Renaissance. It arose in Florence in the middle of the XIV century, existed until the middle of the XVI century; from the end of the 15th century it passed to Spain, Germany, France, partly to England and other countries.

Renaissance humanism is the first stage in the development of humanism, a movement in which humanism first appeared as an integral system of views and a broad current of social thought, causing a genuine upheaval in the culture and worldview of people of that time. The main idea of ​​the Renaissance humanists was the improvement of human nature through the study of ancient literature.

Term [ | ]

The original Latin form of this concept is studia humanitatis. In this form, it was introduced by the Renaissance humanists themselves, who reinterpreted Cicero, who at one time sought to emphasize that the concept of "humanity" as the most important result of the culture developed in the ancient Greek policies, took root on Roman soil.

The meaning of the term "humanism" in the Renaissance (as opposed to today's meaning of the word) was: "zealous study of everything that constitutes the integrity of the human spirit," since lat. humanitas meant "the fullness and division of human nature". Also, this concept was opposed to the "scholastic" study of the "divine" (studia divina). Such an understanding studia humanitatis for the first time received its justification as an ideological program of a new mental movement in the writings of Petrarch.

Renaissance "humanism" is not the defense of human rights, but the study of man as he is. Humanism, from the point of view of Petrarch and other philosophers, meant the transfer of man to the center of the world, the study of man in the first place. The term "humanism" in this regard is somewhat synonymous with the word "anthropocentrism" and is opposed to the term "theocentrism". In contrast to the religious philosophy of Western Europe, humanistic philosophy sets as its task the study of man with all his earthly and unearthly needs. Instead of ontological questions, ethical questions come to the fore.

The word "humanist" appeared at the end of the 15th century. Actually the term "humanism" in its current form, as noted by L. Batkin, was first used in 1808 by the teacher F. Nithammer; after the work of G. Vogt "" (1859), a discussion of the historical content and limits of this concept began in science.

The humanists themselves of the 15th century usually called themselves "orators", less often "rhetors", thereby emphasizing their difference from university scientists, as well as their connection with the ancient traditions of ancient orators.

Concept and activity[ | ]

The humanists themselves described themselves as follows: Leonardo Bruni defined studia humanitatis so - "the knowledge of those things that relate to life and customs, and which improve and adorn a person" . Salutati believed that this word combined "virtue and learning" (virtus atque doctrine), and "scholarship" assumed the universality of knowledge based on the possession of "literature" (literae), and "virtue" included spiritual meekness and benevolence (benignitas), meaning the ability to behave correctly. This virtue, according to humanists, was inseparable from classical education, and thus turned out not to be an innate quality, but something individually achieved through vigils over the classics. The Renaissance was dominated by the idea of ​​cultivation, "cultivation" of the soul through the study of ancient authors, the ability through humanistic studies to realize and reveal all the possibilities inherent in nature in the individual. Guarino Veronese wrote: "there is nothing more suitable and appropriate for the acquisition of virtues and good manners than the diligent reading of learned ancient writers." Humanists believed that through humanistic pursuits, a person will be able to realize all the possibilities inherent in the individual, to cultivate his "virtues". For Petrarch studia humanitatis were primarily a means of self-knowledge.

Modern scholars are clarifying interpretations: Paul Christeller understands Renaissance humanism as a “professional area” of activity approximately between - years, which consisted in studying and teaching a well-known set of disciplines (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy, including political philosophy) based on classical Greek-Latin education. Thus, as Batkin notes, such boundaries of humanism do not coincide with the medieval quadrivium, differ from the traditional nomenclature of the liberal arts and show a serious gap between humanism and the then university education (jurisprudence, medicine, natural science, logic, theology, philosophy in understanding of natural philosophy).

E. Garen interprets Renaissance humanism as a new world outlook, which led to a comprehensive change in culture and was an important stage in history and philosophy, and all thinking in general. The center of interests of the humanists was "literature" - philology and rhetoric, the Word was at the center of philosophy, the cult of beautiful and pure classical speech reigned. The word was identified with Knowledge and Virtue, it was understood as the embodiment of the universal and divine human nature, as its harmonious ethos and an instrument of practical human activity among friends, family and native community (ideal homo civilis).

Humanistic "literature" made it possible to develop a new worldview, which was imbued with criticism, secularism, opposed itself to the themes and methods of medieval scholasticism and, in addition, made it possible for the first time to develop an understanding of historical distance in relation to antiquity.

The lifestyle and ideals of the humanists[ | ]

Humanistic pursuits, as a rule, remained a private affair of humanists, their hobby, not being their profession, although they brought reputation, and as a result, gifts from patrons.

Renaissance humanists were an informal group of like-minded people, who were distinguished by their inner content, and not by an official kind of activity. Representatives of completely different strata, conditions and professions became humanists. Although some of the humanists were members of old workshops and corporations, what united them had nothing to do with this: “their meeting place was a country villa, a monastery library, a bookshop, a sovereign’s palace, or just a private house where it’s comfortable to talk, leaf through manuscripts looking at antique medals. In imitation of the ancients, they began to call their mugs academies» . (See for example the Platonic Academy in Careggi). Batkin notes that, apparently, the humanists were the first intellectuals in European history; other researchers agree that “the appearance of that category of persons, which later became known as humanists, in essence, marked the beginning of the process of emergence in this era secular intelligentsia» . The unifying feature for the circle of humanists was an exclusively spiritual community, which at the same time remained too broad and not connected with material interests; "The line between humanism as a state of mind and as an activity is conditional." Vergerio points out that humanism is not a profession, but a vocation, and denounces people who turned to literature for the sake of money and honors, and not for the sake of scholarship and virtue.

An important component studia humanitatis in the ideas of the humanistic environment there was "leisure" (otium, ozio) filled with high occupations, sweet and gratifying, always opposed to service and various business duties (negotium, ufficio). Freedom to manage your time and yourself is a precondition for becoming a humanist. Lorenzo Valla lists five essential conditions for learning:

1. "Communication with educated people" (litteratorum consuetudo)
2. "An abundance of books"
3. "Comfortable spot"
4. "Free time" (temporis otium)
5. "Peace of Mind" (animi vacuitas), a special “emptiness, incompleteness, liberation of the soul”, making it ready to be filled with learning and wisdom.

Humanists are reviving the philosophy of Epicureanism, which promotes pleasure - but primarily spiritual, not sensual (Cosimo Raimondi, "Defense of Epicurus", to. 1420s; Lorenzo Valla, dialogue "On Delight (On True and False Good)", 1433). A typical idea of ​​the Renaissance - questa dolcezza del vivere("this sweetness of life").

At the same time, there was a concept of a close connection between the ideals of contemplative life (vita contemplativa) and active (vita activa), and the latter was to be directed to the benefit of society. Humanist scientists felt like teachers (Pier Paolo Veggerio, Guarino Veronese, Vittorino da Feltre) and considered it their main task to educate a perfect person who, thanks to a liberal education, can become an ideal citizen. The sciences are studied in order to make people free. In k. XIV - early. 15th century Coluccio Salutati and Leonardo Bruni put forward a new, close to the Florentines, ideal of civil life (vita civile), in which classical education became inseparable from active political activity for the benefit of the republic - see Civil humanism. Northern Italian humanists who lived in monarchies, the idea of ​​a perfect citizen was more associated with the ideal of a perfect sovereign, they also develop the ideal of an obedient courtier.

New human ideal[ | ]

In this environment, a new ideal of personality arose, generated by the secular and classical aspirations of the humanistic worldview. In humanistic literature, he received his development.

The main principle of the entire humanistic ethics of the Renaissance was the doctrine of the high purpose of man, of his dignity - dignitas. He said that a person endowed with reason and an immortal soul, possessing virtue and unlimited creative possibilities, free in his actions and thoughts, is placed at the center of the universe by nature itself. This doctrine was based on the views of ancient philosophy and also partly on the medieval theological doctrine that man was created in the image and likeness of God.(In fact, it was directed against Christian asceticism with its predestination of a person's place in the hierarchy). One of the ancient sources of this idea was the dialogue of Cicero "About Laws".

“Nature, that is, God, has put into man a heavenly and divine element, incomparably more beautiful and noble than anything mortal. She gave him talent, learning ability, intelligence - divine properties, thanks to which he can explore, distinguish and know what he must avoid and follow in order to preserve himself. In addition to these great and priceless gifts, God has placed in the human soul moderation, restraint against passions and excessive desires, as well as shame, modesty and the desire to deserve praise. In addition, God implanted in people the need for a firm mutual connection that supports coexistence, justice, justice, generosity and love, and with all this a person can earn gratitude and praise from people, and from his creator - favor and mercy. God has put into the human breast the ability to endure any work, any misfortune, any blow of fate, to overcome all sorts of difficulties, to overcome sorrow, not to be afraid of death. He gave man strength, steadfastness, firmness, strength, contempt for insignificant trifles... Therefore, be convinced that a person is born not to drag out a sad existence in inaction, but to work on a great and grandiose deed. By this, he can, firstly, please God and honor him, and, secondly, acquire for himself the most perfect virtues and complete happiness.

Reasoning on this topic was a favorite subject of humanists (Petrarch; Alberti, treatise "About family", 1433-43, 41; Manetti, treatise "On the Dignity and Excellence of Man" 1451-52; Ficino; Pico della Mirandola, "Speech on the Dignity of Man" 1486) .

All their reasoning was imbued with one main idea - admiration for reason and its creative power. Reason is a priceless gift of nature, which distinguishes man from all things, makes him god-like. For the humanist, wisdom was the highest good available to people, and therefore they considered the propaganda of classical literature to be their most important task. In wisdom and knowledge, they believed, a person finds true happiness - and this was his true nobility.

In contrast to the medieval and feudal ideal of personality (religious and class), the new humanistic ideal had a clearly defined secular and social orientation. Humanists, relying on the ancients, reject the importance of origin in assessing the dignity of a person, which now depends on his individual qualities.

Virtue [ | ]

A common feature of the worldview of the early humanists, which stemmed from their characteristic desire to revive the ideas and spirit of ancient culture as much as possible, while preserving all the main content of the Christian doctrine, consisted in its paganization, that is, saturation with ancient, "pagan" moral and philosophical ideas. For example, Eneo Silvio Piccolomini, one of the humanists of this era, wrote that "Christianity is nothing but a new, more complete presentation of the doctrine of the highest good of the ancients"- and, characteristically, Piccolomini will become Pope Pius II.

Any arguments of the humanists were supported by examples from ancient history. They liked to compare their contemporaries with the outstanding "men of antiquity" ( uomini illustrations): the Florentines preferred the philosophers and politicians of republican Rome, and the feudal circles preferred generals and Caesars. At the same time, the appeal to antiquity was not felt as the resurrection of the dead - the proud feeling of being direct descendants and successors of traditions allowed the humanists to remain themselves: “the half-forgotten treasures of art and literature of antiquity are brought to light with glee, like expensive, long-lost property” .

Relationship to Christianity[ | ]

Humanists have never opposed themselves to religion. At the same time, opposing themselves to scholastic philosophizing, they believed that they were reviving the true Church and faith in God, not finding any contradiction in the combination of Christianity with ancient philosophy.

“Praising the mind of man, the humanists saw in the rational human nature the image of God, what God endowed man with, so that man would improve and improve his earthly life. As a rational being, man is a creator and it is in this that he is similar to God. Therefore, the duty of a person is to participate in the world, and not to leave it, to improve the world, and not to look at it with ascetic detachment as something unnecessary for salvation. Man and the world are beautiful, because they were created by God, and the task of man is to improve the world, making it even more beautiful, in this man is a co-worker with God. Thus, humanists argue with the essay written by Pope Innocent III "On contempt for the world, or On the insignificance of human life", where the body is humiliated and the spirit is praised, and they seek to rehabilitate the bodily principle in man (Gianozzo Manetti): The whole world created by God for man is beautiful, but the peak of his creation is only man, whose body many times exceeds all other bodies. How amazing, for example, are his hands, these "living tools" capable of any kind of work! Man is intelligent, prudent and very insightful animal (…animal rationale, providum et saga…), it differs from the latter in that if each animal is capable of any one occupation, then a person can engage in any of them. The spiritual and bodily man is so beautiful that, being a creation of God, at the same time he serves as the main model according to which the ancient pagans, and behind them the Christians, depict their gods, which contributes to the worship of God, especially among more rude and uneducated people. God is the creator of all things, while man is the creator of the great and beautiful realm of culture, material and spiritual.

At the same time, in relation to the clergy, the humanists experienced more negative emotions: “the weakening of the ties of the humanists with the church, since many of them lived on the income received from their professional activity(as well as from noble and wealthy people who are not dependent on the church), increased their hostility towards official scholarship, imbued with a church-scholastic spirit. For many of them, such hostility grew into a sharply critical attitude towards the entire system of this scholarship, towards its theoretical and philosophical foundations, towards authoritarianism, outside and without which this scholarship could not exist. It is also important to recall that the humanist movement began in Italy in the era of the decline of the moral and political authority of the papacy, associated with the events of his Avignon captivity (1309-1375), the frequent splits of the Catholic Church, when antipopes appeared in opposition to the legitimate popes and when the supremacy was contested at church councils popes in the life of the church (...) The revival of this [classical Latin] language was a form of criticism of the prevailing ecclesiastical scholastic scholarship and religious practice, which operated with “corrupted”, inexpressive Latin, far from ancient Roman classical images. Critical studies of the history of the Catholic Church appear ("On the forgery of the Gift of Constantine").

Humanist theory of art[ | ]

An important theorist and practitioner who worked on this topic was Leon Battista Alberti. At the heart of early humanistic aesthetics was the idea of ​​the ability of art to imitate, borrowed from antiquity. "Imitation of nature" ( imitation, imitation) is not a simple copying, but a creative act with a conscious selection of the most perfect. The idea of ​​"art" (as a craft) was introduced in conjunction with talent, genius (individual interpretation by the artist) - ars and ingenium, as a formula for the aesthetic evaluation of a work of art. The concept of "similarity" ( similitude) - as a direct likeness, necessary for a portrait.

Genres of humanist creativity[ | ]

Epistoles [ | ]

Letters (epistoles) were one of the most common genres of humanist creativity. They used letters not for the exchange of topical and personal information, but for general reasoning and exercises in literature according to the Cicero model. The epistole was often sent not only to the addressee, but also to his friends, who, in turn, made copies of it, so that as a result the message diverged in many copies. In fact, it was not a “letter”, as this concept is interpreted today, but an essay of a special literary genre, in some way anticipating journalism. From the time of Petrarch, the letters of the humanists were from the very beginning intended precisely for publication.

The style of these letters was characterized by solemnity and publicity. As the researchers note, perhaps "no other type of source so expressively shows the artificiality, invention, stylized life and communication of humanists as their epistles" . Epistol subgenres are characteristic:

• consolatoriae- "comfort"
• hortatoriae- "inspired appeal"

The authors, having accumulated a sufficient number of epistles, compiled collections of them, which were included in lifetime collected works. So did, for example, Petrarch, from whom everyone took an example. Petrarch revised and edited his "Letters to relatives" hindsight (the first two books of these "Letters" are dated 1330-40, but were actually rewritten around 1351-40 and revised and corrected until 1366). Some of these letters are even addressed to the long-dead Cicero or Seneca, which allowed the author to express his position on various issues.

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Introduction

1. The birth of humanism

2. Basic ideas of humanism

Conclusion

Introduction

The philosophy of the Renaissance is distinguished by its pronounced anthropocentrism. Man is not only the most important object of philosophical consideration, but also turns out to be the central link in the entire chain of cosmic existence. A kind of anthropocentrism was also characteristic of medieval consciousness. But there it was about the problem of the fall, redemption and salvation of man; the world was created for man, and man was the highest creation of God on earth; but man was considered not by himself, but in his relationship with God, in his relationship to sin and eternal salvation, unattainable by his own strength. The humanistic philosophy of the Renaissance is characterized by the consideration of man in his, above all, earthly destiny. Man not only rises within the framework of the hierarchical picture of being, he “blows up” this hierarchy itself and returns to nature, and his relationship with nature and God is considered within the framework of a new, pantheistic understanding of the world.

In the evolution of the philosophical thought of the Renaissance, it seems possible to single out three characteristic periods: humanistic, or anthropocentric, opposing medieval theocentrism with an interest in man in his relations with the world; neoplatonic, associated with the formulation of broad ontological problems; natural philosophical. The first of them characterizes philosophical thought in the period from the middle of the XIV to the middle of the XV century, the second - from the middle of the XV to the first third of the XVI century, the third - the second half of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII century.

In this paper, it will be considered the first period of philosophical thought - the humanistic period.

The objectives of the abstract are:

1. To highlight the conditions under which the onset of the Renaissance became possible.

2. Find out the basic ideas of humanism.

3. Consider the ideas of humanism of the main representatives of this philosophical trend.

1. The birth of humanism

From the 15th century the transitional Renaissance begins in the history of Western Europe, which created its own brilliant culture. In the field of economics, there is a disintegration of feudal relations and the development of the rudiments of capitalist production; the richest city-republics in Italy develop. The biggest discoveries follow one after another: the first printed books; firearms; Columbus discovers America; Vasco da Gama, rounding Africa, found a sea route to India; Magellan, with his round-the-world trip, proves the sphericity of the Earth; geography and cartography emerge as scientific disciplines; symbolic notation is introduced in mathematics; scientific anatomy and the foundations of physiology appear; “iatrochemistry” or medical chemistry arises, striving for the knowledge of chemical phenomena in the human body and for the study of drugs; astronomy is making great strides. But most importantly, the dictatorship of the church was broken. This was the most important condition for the flourishing of culture in the Renaissance. Secular interests, the full-blooded earthly life of a person were opposed to feudal asceticism, the "other world" ghostly world. Petrarch, tirelessly collecting ancient manuscripts, calls for "healing the bloody wounds" of his native Italy, trampled under the boot of foreign soldiers and torn apart by the enmity of feudal tyrants. Boccaccio in his "Decameron" ridicules the depraved clergy and the parasitic nobility, glorifying the inquisitive mind, the desire for pleasure and the seething energy of the townspeople. The satire "Praise of Stupidity" by Erasmus of Rotterdam, the novel "Gargantua and Pantagruel" by Rabelais, witty, full of mockery and ridicule "Letters of dark people" by Ulrich von Hutten express the humanism and unacceptability of the old medieval ideology Gorfunkel A.Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance.- M: Higher School, 1980.- S. 30-31.

Researchers distinguish two periods in the development of Renaissance philosophy:

restoration and adaptation of ancient philosophy to the requirements of modern times (end of the 14th - 15th centuries);

the emergence of its own peculiar philosophy, the main course of which was natural philosophy (XVI century).

The birthplace of the Renaissance is Florence. It was in Florence, and a little later in Siena, Ferrara, Pisa, that circles of educated people formed, who were called humanists. The term itself comes from the name of the circle of sciences that the poetically and artistically gifted Florentines were engaged in: studia humanitatis. These are the sciences that have as their object man and everything human, as opposed to the studia divina, everything that studies the divine, that is, theology. This does not mean, of course, that the humanists were estranged from theology - on the contrary, they were connoisseurs of Scripture, patristics.

And yet, the main activity of the humanists was philological science. Humanists began to look for rewriting, to study first literary and then artistic monuments of antiquity, primarily the statues of Yukhvidin P.A. World artistic culture: from its origins to the 17th century: in lectures, conversations, stories. - M: New school, 1996. - P.226-228.

The entire culture of the Renaissance, its philosophy is filled with recognition of the value of a person as a person, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities. A new criterion for evaluating social relations is being approved - the human one. At the first stage, the humanism of the Renaissance acted as a secular freethinking, opposing medieval scholasticism and the spiritual dominance of the church. Further, the humanism of the Renaissance is affirmed through the value-moral emphasis of philosophy and literature.

2. Basic ideas of humanism

At the origins of anthropocentric humanism is Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). In his immortal "Comedy", as well as in the philosophical treatises "Feast" and "Monarchy", he sang a hymn to the earthly destiny of man, opened the way to humanistic anthropology.

The perishable world of the earth is opposed by the eternal world of heaven. And in this confrontation, the role of the middle link is played by a person, for he is involved in both worlds. The mortal and immortal nature of man also determines his dual purpose: extraterrestrial existence and human bliss that can be realized on earth. Earthly destiny is realized in civil society. The church leads to eternal life.

Thus, a person realizes himself in earthly destiny and in eternal life. The separation of earthly and afterlife poses the problem of the church's refusal to claim secular life.

The theocentrism of the Middle Ages "overcomes" F. Petrarch (1304-1374) and does it with more confidence than Dante Alighieri. Referring to the problems of human existence, F. Petrarch states: "The celestials should discuss the heavenly, but we - the human." The thinker is interested in the inner world of a person, and, moreover, a person who breaks ties with medieval traditions and is aware of this break. Earthly cares are the first duty of a person and in no case should be sacrificed to the afterlife. The old stereotype of contempt for earthly things is giving way to the ideal of man in his worthy earthly existence. This position is shared by Gianozzo Manetti (1396-1459) in his treatise On the Dignity and Superiority of Man, which emphasizes that a person is born not for a sad existence, but for creation and affirmation of himself in his deeds.

The ideological orientation of humanistic thought lays the foundation for a new philosophy - the philosophy of the Renaissance.

The theoretical basis of the new philosophy was the translations of classical antiquity. Cleansing Aristotelian texts from medieval "barbarisms", the humanists revived the true Aristotle, returning his legacy to the system of classical culture. Thanks to the philological and translation activities of the humanists of the Renaissance, European philosophy received at its disposal numerous monuments of Greek and Roman philosophical thought, as well as their comments. But the latter, unlike the medieval ones, were focused not on confrontation, but on dialogue, the interpenetration of the earthly, natural and divine Reale J., Antiseri D. Western philosophy from its origins to the present day. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Pnevma, 2002. - 25-27.

The subject of philosophy is the earthly life of man, his activity. The task of philosophy is not to oppose the spiritual and the material, but to reveal their harmonious unity. The place of conflict is occupied by the search for agreement. This applies both to the nature of man and to the position of man in the world around him - the world of nature and society. Humanism opposes the values ​​of the earthly world to the values ​​of the Middle Ages. Following nature is proclaimed a prerequisite. The ascetic ideal is seen as hypocrisy, a state that is unnatural to human nature.

A new ethics is being formed, based on the unity of the soul and the body, the equality of the spiritual and the physical. It is absurd to take care of the soul alone, for it follows the nature of the body and cannot function without it. “Beauty lies in nature itself, and a person must strive for pleasure and overcome suffering,” says Casimo Raimondi. Earthly bliss, as an existence worthy of man, must become a prerequisite for heavenly bliss. Overcoming savagery and barbarism, a person says goodbye to his insignificance and acquires a truly human state.

What is human in a person is just a possibility laid in him by God. For its implementation, it requires significant efforts from a person, cultural and creative activity. In the process of life, nature is supplemented by culture. The unity of nature and culture provides the prerequisites for the elevation of man to the one in whose image and likeness he was created. Human creative activity is a continuation and completion of divine creation. Creativity, as an attribute of God, included in human activity, becomes a prerequisite for the deification of man. Thanks to creativity, a person can rise to sky-high heights, become an earthly god.

The world and man are the creation of God. A beautiful world created for enjoyment. Beautiful and man, created to enjoy the world. But the purpose of man is not passive enjoyment, but creative life. Only in a creative act does a person acquire the opportunity to enjoy this world. Thus, the ethics of humanism, attributing the attribute of divinity to the mind of a person and his deeds, opposes the medieval ethics of asceticism and passivity Yukhvidin P.A. World artistic culture: from its origins to the 17th century: in lectures, conversations, stories. - M: New School, 1996. - P. 230-233.

As a summary, we can say that the philosophy of humanism "rehabilitated" the world and man, raised, but did not solve the problem of the relationship between the divine and the natural, the infinite and the finite. The solution of this ontological problem became the content of the Neoplatonic period in the development of the philosophy of the Renaissance.

3. The main representatives of the humanistic concept of the Renaissance

Dante Alighieri and Francesca Petrarca (XIII - XIV centuries) are recognized as the first humanists. In the center of their attention is man, but not as a "vessel" of sin (which is typical of the Middle Ages), but as the most perfect creation, created in the "image of God." Man, like God, is a creator, and this is his highest destiny. The idea of ​​creativity appears as a deviation from medieval traditions. In the "Divine" Comedy, Dante noted that earthly concerns constitute the first duty of a person and in no case should be sacrificed to the afterlife. Thus, the old stereotype of contempt for earthly things gives way to the ideal of man in his worthy earthly existence. The purpose of human life is to be happy. Fortunately, two paths lead: philosophical teaching (that is, the human mind) and creation. Humanists oppose asceticism. The ascetic ideal is considered by them as hypocrisy, a state of unnatural human nature. Believing in the strength of a person, they said that a person himself is responsible for his own good, relying on personal qualities and mind. The mind must be freed from dogmatism and the cult of authority. Its feature should be activity, embodied not only in theoretical activity, but also in practice.

The call of humanists to evaluate a person not by nobility or wealth, not by the merits of his ancestors, but only by what he himself achieved, inevitably led to individualism. revival philosophy humanism

To the outstanding Italian humanists of the 15th century. belongs to Lorenzo Valla. In his philosophical views, Valla was close to Epicureanism, believing that all living things strive for self-preservation and the exclusion of suffering. Life is the highest value. The purpose of human life is happiness and enjoyment. Pleasure brings pleasures of the soul and body, therefore they are the highest good. Nature, including human nature, is divine, and the pursuit of pleasure is the nature of man. Therefore, pleasure is also divine. In his ethical teaching, Lorenzo Valla comprehends the basic human virtues. Criticizing medieval asceticism, he opposes secular virtues to it: virtue is not only in enduring poverty, but also in creating and accumulating wealth, and also wisely using it not only in abstinence, but also in marriage, not only in obedience, but also in managing wisely.

Scholars view Wall's philosophy as individualistic. In his works there are such concepts as "personal benefit", "personal interest". It is on them that the relations of people in society are built. The thinker noted that the interests of others should be taken into account only insofar as they are associated with the personal pleasures of Proskurin A.V. History of Western European philosophy (from antiquity to the XVIII century): a course of lectures. - Pskov: PPI Publishing House, 2009. - P.74-75.

The problem of the inner world of a person was brought to the fore by Michel Montaigne, who is called "the last humanist." In his famous “Experiences”, he explores the real person in everyday and simple life (for example, the chapters of his book are marked as follows: “On parental love”, “On conceit”, “The benefit of one is the detriment to another”, etc.) and seeks to make recommendations for intelligent living based on personal experience.

The basis of his reasoning is the idea of ​​the unity of the soul and body, the physical and spiritual nature of man. Moreover, this unity is focused on earthly life, and not eternal salvation. The destruction of unity is the road to death. Therefore, the claims of man to break out of the bounds of the universal law of emergence and death, life and death, which is the same for all things, are absurd. Life is given to a person only once, and in this life to be guided by both the nature of the body and the mind; it is necessary to determine the rational behavior of a person, to follow the "instructions" of our parent - nature. The denial of the immortality of the soul not only does not destroy morality, but makes it more reasonable. Man courageously faces death not because his soul is immortal, but because he himself is mortal.

The goal of virtue is dictated by life. Its essence is to "live this life well and in accordance with all natural laws." Human life is multifaceted, it includes not only joys, but also sufferings. “Life itself is neither good nor evil; it is the receptacle of both good and evil ... ". The acceptance of life in all its complexity, the courageous enduring of the suffering of the body and soul, the worthy fulfillment of one's earthly destiny - such is the ethical position of M. Montaigne.

Life is not a means of salvation and atonement for original sin, not a means of public dubious goals. Human life is valuable in itself, has its own meaning and justification. And in developing a worthy meaning, a person must rely on himself, in himself find the support of genuine moral behavior. Montaigne stands on the position of individualism, arguing that only a sovereign person can be useful to society. Considering the problems of man, M. Montaigne addresses the issue of knowledge. He states that tradition and authority rule the ball in conventional philosophy. Rejecting authorities whose teachings may be erroneous, Montaigne stands for a free and unbiased view of the object of study, for the right to skepticism as a methodological device. Montaigne, criticizing theological dogmatism, notes: "People do not believe in anything so firmly as what they know least about." Here, the criticism of dogmatism develops into a criticism of ordinary consciousness, with which the philosophers of antiquity began. M. Montaigne tries to find a way to improve it, noting that the contentment of the mind is a sign of its limitations or fatigue. Recognition of one's own ignorance is a prerequisite to knowledge. Only by admitting our ignorance can we free ourselves from the yoke of prejudice. Moreover, ignorance is itself the first and tangible result of cognition. Cognition is a continuous process of moving forward towards an unclear goal. Cognition begins with sensations, but sensations are only a prerequisite for knowledge, because, as a rule, they are not adequate to the nature of their source. The work of the mind is necessary - generalization. Montaigne recognized that the object of knowledge itself is in constant change. Therefore, there is no absolute knowledge, it is always relative. With his philosophical reasoning, M. Montaigne gave a powerful charge to both the late Renaissance and the philosophy of the New Age Gorfunkel A.Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance.- M: Higher School, 1980.- P.201-233.

Thus, many great thinkers and artists of that time contributed to the development of humanism. Among them are Petrarch, Lorenzo Valla, Pico della Mirandola, M. Montaigne and others.

Conclusion

The essay covered the issues of humanism of the Renaissance. Humanism is a special phenomenon in the spiritual life of the Renaissance.

Humanists focus on man, but not as a "vessel of sin" (which was typical of the Middle Ages), but as the most perfect creation of God, created in the "image of God." Man, like God, is a creator, and this is his highest destiny.

A distinctive feature of the Renaissance is the formation of an anthropocentric picture of the world. Anthropocentrism involves the promotion of man to the center of the universe, to the place that was previously occupied by God. The whole world began to appear as a derivative of man, dependent on his will, significant only as an object of application of his forces and creative abilities. Man began to be thought of as the crown of creation; unlike the other "created" world, he had the ability to create like the Heavenly Creator. Moreover, man is able to improve his own nature. According to the majority of cultural figures of the Renaissance, man is only half created by God, the further completion of creation depends on him. If he will make significant spiritual efforts, will improve his soul and spirit through education, upbringing and refraining from low desires, then he will ascend to the level of saints, angels and even God; if he follows low passions, lust, pleasures and pleasures, then he will degrade. The work of the Renaissance figures is imbued with faith in the limitless possibilities of man, his will and mind.

List of used literature

1. Gorfunkel A.Kh. Philosophy of the Renaissance. - M: Higher School, 1980. - 368 p.

2. Proskurina A.V. History of Western European philosophy (from antiquity to the XVIII century): a course of lectures. - Pskov: PPI Publishing House, 2009. - 83 p.

3. Reale J., Antiseri D. Western philosophy from its origins to the present day. Middle Ages. - St. Petersburg: Pnevma, 2002. - 880 p., with illustrations.

4. Yukhvidin P.A. World artistic culture: from its origins to the 17th century: in lectures, conversations, stories. - Moscow: New school, 1996.- 288 p.

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Humanists were not narrow specialists, but were specialists in culture at all."They are the bearers of the new nobility (nobilitas), identified with personal prowess and knowledge "See Poletukhin Yu.A. Classics of legal thought and education on the problem of the death penalty. - M: Chelyabinsk .: ChelGU, 2010. P. 87

Philology was the main instrument of the humanist. An impeccable knowledge of Latin and Greek, and especially a skillful command of classical Latin, was a necessary requirement for the reputation of a humanist, and a command of oral Latin was highly desirable. It also required a clear handwriting and an incredible memory. In their studios, humanists were interested in the following subjects - grammar, rhetoric, ethics, history and poetry, etc. Humanists abandon medieval art forms, resurrecting new ones - poetry, the epistolary genre, fiction, philosophical treatises.

The highest reputation of humanism began to play a great role. A characteristic feature of the Renaissance was the highest social prestige of humanistic knowledge and talents, the cult of culture. Good Latin style became a necessity of politics. In the first decades of the 15th century, enthusiasm for humanistic learning would become a common feature of social life.

One of the founders of the origin of humanistic philosophy was

great European poet Francesco Petrarca(1304 - 1374). He was born into a family of poor inhabitants of Florence, by the time of the birth of his son, expelled from his native city and living in the small town of Arezzo. Already in childhood, together with his parents, he changed many different places of residence. And this became a kind of symbol of his entire destiny - during his life he traveled a lot, lived in different cities of Italy, France, Germany. Everywhere he found the honor and respect of numerous admirers and admirers of his poetic talent. See Ibid.

However, Petrarch is not only a poet, but also a peculiar and interesting thinker, philosopher. It was he who was the first in Europe to formulate the ideas of humanism, began to talk about the need to revive the ancient spirit, the ideals of antiquity. No wonder already at the beginning of the XV century. wrote: "Francesco Petrarch was the first to whom grace descended, and he recognized and realized and brought to light the elegance of the ancient style, lost and forgotten."

Being a sincerely believing Christian, Petrarch did not accept the widespread scholastic understanding of the essence of God and, above all, the established dominance of rationalized Christianity. Therefore, he urged not to scatter one's strength in fruitless logical thinking, but to rediscover the true charm of the entire complex of humanitarian disciplines. True wisdom, in his opinion, lies in knowing the method of achieving this wisdom. Therefore, it is necessary to return to the knowledge of one's own soul. Petrarch wrote: "I am not disturbed by the barrier of books and the admiration of earthly things, since I have learned from pagan philosophers that nothing is worthy of admiration, except only for the soul, against which everything seems insignificant."

It is with Petrarch that the first humanist criticism of Aristotle begins. Although Petrarch treats Aristotle himself with great respect, however, the use of the Aristotelian style of thinking by scholastic philosophers, the principles of Aristotelian logic to prove the truths of faith, does not suit him at all. Petrarch insists that purely logical ways of comprehending God lead not to knowledge, but to atheism.

Petrarch himself gave preference to the philosophy of Plato and the writings of the Church Fathers based on him. He argued that if Plato did not reach the truth, he was closer to it than others. Recognizing the "philosophical primacy" of Plato, he rhetorically asked: "And who would deny such primacy, except perhaps a noisy crowd of stupid scholastics?"

In general, Petrarch calls for the most active study of the philosophical heritage of antiquity, for the revival of the ideals of antiquity, for the revival of what later came to be called the "ancient spirit." After all, he, like many ancient thinkers, was primarily interested in the internal, moral and ethical problems of man.

No less striking outstanding humanist of the Renaissance was Giordano Bruno(1548 - 1600). He was born in Nola, near Naples. Later, after his birthplace, he called himself Nolan. Bruno came from a family of a petty nobleman, but already in his early years he became interested in the sciences, theology, and as a young man he became a monk of a Dominican monastery. However, the exclusively theological education that Bruno could receive in the monastery soon ceased to satisfy his search for truth. The Nolanian became interested in the ideas of humanism, began to study philosophy, both ancient, especially ancient, and modern. Already in his youth, one characteristic feature of Giordano Bruno acquired a clear expression - having an uncompromising character, from a young age until the end of his life he firmly and fearlessly defended his views, was not afraid to enter into disputes and disputes. In this uncompromising attitude, the thesis of "heroic enthusiasm", which Bruno put forward as the main quality of a true scientist, found expression - in the struggle for truth one cannot feel fear even of death. But for Bruno himself, the heroic struggle for truth all his life served as a source of his endless conflicts with those around him. See Poletukhin I.A. Decree. Op. P.91.

One of these conflicts, which happened between a young monk and the authorities of the monastery, led to the fact that Bruno had to flee from the monastery. For several years he wandered through the cities of Italy and France. The lectures that Bruno attended at the universities of Toulouse and Paris also often ended in heated arguments between Nolanz and professors and students. Most of all, the Italian thinker was outraged by the commitment of university teachers to scholasticism, which, as he believed, had long outlived its usefulness. Conflicts with the scientific community continued in England, where Bruno attended Oxford University.

In the same years, Giordano Bruno fruitfully works on his own compositions. In 1584 - 1585. in London, six of his dialogues in Italian were published, in which he outlined the systems of his worldview. It was in these works that the ideas of the plurality of worlds were first voiced, denying the traditional idea of ​​the Earth as the center of the Universe. These ideas caused a sharp rejection of the Roman Catholic Church, as heretical, transgressing church dogmas. In addition, Bruno's dialogues contained harsh and caustic criticism to which he subjected scholastic scholars. Once again at the center of the conflict, causing the displeasure of the scientific community, Nolan was forced to leave England and go to France.

The philosophical views of Nolanz were formed under the influence of many previous teachings: Neoplatonism, Stoicism, the ideas of Democritus and Epicurus, Heraclitus, and humanistic theories. The influence of the concepts of the Arabic-speaking philosophers Averroes and Avicenna, as well as the Jewish philosopher Avicebron (who, however, was then considered an Arab Ibn Gebirol), is noticeable. He carefully studied Bruno and the texts of Hermes Trismegistus, whom Bruno called Mercury in his own writings. Of great importance to Bruno was the Copernican theory of the heliocentric structure of the universe, which served as the starting point for his own cosmological ideas. Modern researchers emphasize the serious influence of the philosophy of Nicholas of Cusa, especially the doctrine of the coincidence of opposites. Probably, only Aristotle and the scholastic philosophers based on him did not accept Bruno at all and constantly criticized.

The philosophical counterpoint to the teachings of Giordano Bruno is the doctrine of the coincidence of opposites, which he learned, as already mentioned, from Nicholas of Cusa. Thinking about the coincidence of the infinite and the finite, the higher and the lower, Bruno develops the doctrine of the coincidence of the maximum and the minimum. Using, among other things, mathematical terms, he comes to the conclusion that since the maximum and minimum coincide, then the minimum, as the least, is the substance of all things, "the indivisible beginning." But, since the minimum is "the only and root substance of all things," then "it is impossible for it to have an exact definite name and such a name that would have a positive and not a negative meaning." Therefore, the philosopher himself emphasizes that three kinds of minima should be distinguished: in philosophy it is a monad, in physics it is an atom, in geometry it is a point. But different names of the minimum do not negate its main quality: the minimum, as the substance of all things, is the basis of everything, including the maximum: “Thus, the substance of things does not change at all, it is immortal, no possibility gives birth to it and no one destroys it, does not corrupt, does not diminish, and does not increase. Thanks to her, those who are born are born and into her they are resolved."

I also cannot fail to note in my work such an outstanding humanist of the Renaissance as Thomas More(1478 - 1535), he was born in the family of a famous London lawyer, a royal judge. After two years of study at Oxford University, Thomas More, at the urging of his father, graduated from law school and became a lawyer. Over time More gained fame and was elected to the English Parliament. See O.F. Kudryavtsev. Renaissance humanism and "Utopia".-M.: Moscow, M.: Nauka.2009. S. 201.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Thomas More became close to the humanist circle of John Colet, in which he met Erasmus of Rotterdam. Subsequently, More and Erasmus had a close friendship.

Under the influence of humanist friends, the worldview of Thomas More himself is also formed - he begins to study the works of ancient thinkers, having learned the Greek language, and is engaged in translations of ancient literature.

Without leaving literary works, Thomas More continues his political activities - he was the sheriff of London, chairman of the House of Commons of the English Parliament, received a knighthood. In 1529, More took the highest government post in England - he became Lord Chancellor.

But in the early 30s of the 16th century, More's position changed dramatically. The English King Henry VIII decided to carry out church reform in the country and stand at the head of the Church. Thomas More refused to swear allegiance to the king as the new head of the Church, left the post of Lord Chancellor, but was accused of high treason and imprisoned in the Tower in 1532. Thomas More was executed three years later.

Thomas More entered the history of philosophical thought, first of all, as the author of a book that became a kind of triumph of humanistic thought. More wrote it in 1515 - 1516. and already in 1516, with the active assistance of Erasmus of Rotterdam, the first edition was published under the title "A very useful, as well as entertaining, truly golden little book about the best structure of the state and about the new island of Utopia." Already during his lifetime, this work, briefly called "Utopia", brought More worldwide fame.

The word "Utopia" itself was coined by Thomas More, who composed it from two Greek words: "ou" - "not" and "topos" - "place". Literally, "Utopia" means "a place that does not exist" and it was not for nothing that More himself translated the word "Utopia" as "Nigdea" See Kudryavtsev O.F. Decree. Op. From 204.

More's book tells of a certain island called Utopia, whose inhabitants lead an ideal lifestyle and have established an ideal state system. The very name of the island emphasizes that we are talking about phenomena that do not exist and, most likely, cannot exist in the real world.

As conductors of human principles in their opposition to the "divine", carnal and material in opposition to the ideal, scientists of the Renaissance of the Arts and Sciences (Rinascimento, Renaissance) or the restoration of classical Greco-Roman culture called themselves humanists (from the Latin words humanitas - "humanity", humanus - "human", homo - "man").

The humanistic movement originated in Italy, where the ancient Roman traditions, naturally, acted most directly and at the same time, the proximity to the Byzantine-Greek cultural world made it necessary to enter into frequent contact with it. The founders of humanism are usually called, and not without reason (1265 - 1321), Francesco Petrarch (1304 - 1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 - 1375). Barlaam and Leonty Pilate, teachers of the Greek language in Italy, belonged to their century. The true humanistic school was founded for the first time by the Greek Manuel Chrysolor, a teacher of the Greek language in Florence from 1396 (d. 1415 at the Council of Constance). Since, at the same time, he zealously preached the reunification of the western and eastern churches in rebuffing the danger threatening from Islam, the cathedral in Ferrara and Florence rendered significant services to the development of humanism. His soul was Cardinal Bessarion (1403-72), who remained in Italy, on the side of the Roman party, after the cause of the reunification of the churches fell apart again. In his circle, George Gemist Pleton (or Plifon, d. 1455) enjoyed a reputation as an authoritative scientist. After conquest of Constantinople The Turks moved to Italy along with many of their compatriots George of Trebizond, Theodore Gaza and Constantine Laskaris.

Dante Alighieri. Drawing by Giotto, 14th century

In Italy, humanism found patrons in the person of Cosimo Medici (1389-1464) in Florence, Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455), and later the famous Lorenzo the Magnificent Medici (1449-92) from Florence. Gifted researchers, orators and poets enjoyed their patronage: Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini (1380 - 1459), Francesco Filelfo (1398 - 1481), Giovanni Gioviano Pontano (1426 - 1503), Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (1405 - 1464, from 1458 Pope Pius II) , Poliziano, Pomponio Summer. Often in Naples, Florence, Rome, etc., these scientists formed societies - Academies, the name of which, borrowed from the Platonic school in Athens, later became common in Europe for learned societies.

Many of the humanists, such as Aeneas Silvius, Filelfo, Pietro Paolo Vergerio (born 1349, died around 1430), Matteo Vegio (1406 - 1458), Vittorino Ramboldini da Feltre (1378 - 1446), Battisto Guarino (1370 - 1460) devoted special attention to the science of education. As a bold critic of church history, Lorenzo Valla (1406 - 57), author of the essay “Discourse on the forgery of the Constantine gift” (“De donatione Constantini”), is especially famous.

Humanism and Humanists of the Renaissance. Video tutorial

The 16th century saw another brilliant flowering of later humanism in Italy, especially under Pope Leo X (Giovanni de' Medici from 1475-1521, pope from 1513). The famous humanists Cardinals Pietro Bembo (1470 - 1547) and Jacopo Sadoleto (1477 - 1547) belong to this time. Only gradually, in most cases after the advent of printing, did humanism spread beyond the Alps. First to France, where already in 1430 Greek and Hebrew were taught at the University of Paris, and where in the 15th century. John Laskaris, George Hermonim and others worked, and in the 16th century. especially famous were Guillaume Bude (Buddeus 1467 - 1540), learned printers Robert Etienne (Stephanus, 1503 - 59) and his son Henri (1528 - 98) before moving to Geneva in 1551, Marc Antoine Muret (1526 - 85), Isaac Casaubon (1559 - 1614, from 1608 in England) and many others. In Spain, one must name Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540), in England, the executed chancellor Thomas More (1480-1535). As regards England, it should be mentioned that the emergence of a significant number of well-known schools belongs to the age of humanism (Eton since 1441 and many others).

In the German Netherlands, humanism found the ground well prepared, thanks to the activities of the "brothers of communal life" whose society, founded by G. Groth (1340 - 84) from Deventer, was engaged in the education of youth with special love. From here came the first significant teachers of the Greek language in Germany - Rudolf Agricola (Roelof Huysmann, 1443 - 85) and Alexander Hegius (Hegius, van der Heck, 1433 - 98), Johann Murmelius, rector in Münster (1480 - 1517), Ludwig Dringenberg in Shletshtat (rector there from 1441 - 77, d. 1490), Jacob Wimfeling (1450 - 1528), Conrad Celtes and others.

Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam. Painter Hans Holbein the Younger, 1523