Are the works of the era of classicism modern? Classicism

Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was born on November 19 (8), 1711 in the village of Mishaninskaya, which is located on one of the islands of the Northern Dvina, not far from the city of Kholmogory. The future great scientist first saw the light in the family of a black-haired peasant (so, unlike the serfs, the state peasants were called) Vasily Dorofeevich Lomonosov. Vasily Dorofeevich, like most of the inhabitants of those places, could not feed himself through agriculture (the northern summer is too short) and was engaged in sea fishing. To do this, he had a small sailing ship, which went to the White and Barents Seas, transported goods, hunted sea animals and fish. When Mikhail was ten years old, his father, like many other Pomeranian children, began to take him with him as a cabin boy. The impressions from swimming, seal hunting, new places and people were so strong that they left a mark for a lifetime. Most likely, it was at this time that the boy's indestructible curiosity awakened, which turned into a thirst for knowledge. M.V. Lomonosov early learned to read and write, and most importantly, to think. He greedily reached for knowledge, for the "extraction" of which he went to Moscow at the end of 1730, where he entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. The years of study were not easy, but Lomonosov endured everything and a little more than four years later he moved to the seventh, penultimate, class of the academy, and when in 1735 it was necessary to select the most successful students to be sent to St. Petersburg to the university at the Academy of Sciences, Lomonosov found himself in their number. The St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was founded by Peter I and opened after his death in 1725. It was to become not only the scientific center of the country, but also a center for the training of Russian scientific personnel. For this purpose, a gymnasium and a university were created at the Academy, which attracted the best students from other schools, including the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. For the rapid growth of various industries, the country needed trained specialists. The need for them was especially keenly felt in the mining industry, so it was decided to send three Russian youths abroad to study mining. And six months after arriving in St. Petersburg, Lomonosov, together with D. Vinogradov and G. Reiser, went to Germany. In the autumn of 1736, all three became university students in the city of Marburg. After graduating three years later, having mastered several languages ​​and modern natural sciences, the Russian students then went to the city of Freiberg to the then-famous teacher I. Genkel to study mining. Lomonosov began to study very diligently, but quarrels with Genkel, who did not understand his aspirations, led to a break, and in May 1740 Lomonosov returned to Marburg. After several attempts (and wanderings around Germany), Lomonosov manages to return to Russia. On June 19 (8), 1741, he arrived in St. Petersburg. By this time the situation in the country, and the St. Petersburg Academy in particular, was restless. Dissatisfaction with the dominance of foreigners was expressed. Therefore, the omnipotent at that time the manager of the Academy, the adviser of the academic office, I.D. Schumacher, decided to bring the young Russian scientist closer to him. The quarrel with Genkel and the unauthorized departure from him were forgotten. Lomonosov was entrusted with compiling a catalog of stones and fossils of the St. Petersburg Kunstkamera, the first natural science museum in Russia. At the same time, he writes the scientific work "Elements of Mathematical Chemistry" and creates a project for a catoptric dioptric incendiary instrument - a kind of solar furnace. On January 19 (8), 1742, Lomonosov was appointed adjunct of the physical class of the Academy of Sciences and he received the right to attend meetings of academicians.

especially fruitful for scientific activity Lomonosov in the field of physics and chemistry were 1743-1747. It was then that he developed the first scientific research program in our country in the field of physics and chemistry, which later became known as "276 Notes on Physics and Corpuscular Philosophy". (A corpuscle, in the terminology of that time, is a particle of matter, similar in its properties to what was called a molecule at the end of the 19th century, and science or teaching was then called philosophy.) In the same period, he wrote his dissertations “On Insensitive Particles”, “ On the action of chemical solvents in general”, “On metallic brilliance”, “Reflections on the cause of heat and cold”, etc.

Since 1744, M.V. Lomonosov lectured on physics to students of the academic university. These classes showed that a good textbook is needed for successful learning. And Lomonosov translated from Latin into Russian "Experimental Physics" by one of his Marburg teachers, X. Wolf. For a long time, they studied physics in various educational institutions of the country. Around the same period, Mikhail Vasilievich began a systematic study of thunderstorm and atmospheric phenomena, proposed his own theory of thermal phenomena, based on his atomic-molecular theory, and developed the theory of solutions. Then he seriously took up Russian history and literature, prepared a textbook of eloquence.

In 1745, Lomonosov was elected professor of chemistry (academician) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and began to actively seek the creation of a chemical laboratory. His efforts were crowned with success. In 1748, on the second line of Vasilyevsky Island, in the courtyard of the house where the scientist lived, the first scientific and educational laboratory in Russia was built. The year 1748 became significant in the life of a scientist not only with the opening of a chemical laboratory. In the same year, his scientific papers in physics and chemistry were published, where, among others, “Experience in the theory of air elasticity” was published, outlining the kinetic theory of gases created by Lomonosov. In the same year, he wrote a long letter to the outstanding mathematician L. Euler (1707-1783), in which he outlined his theory of universal gravitation, to confirm which he drew on the law of conservation of momentum (justified by the French scientist R. Descartes) and known to ancient atomists the law of conservation of the amount of matter, combining them for the first time in scientific practice in one formulation. This formulation was published only in 1760. Since 1749, Lomonosov began intensive work in a chemical laboratory, where he analyzes ore samples sent from various places in Russia, creates new dyes, conducts experiments on the study of solutions and roasting metals, and in the "training chamber "For the first time in the world, he reads to students the course" True Physical Chemistry ", in which, following R. Boyle, he tries to give a physical explanation of chemical phenomena. In 1753, Lomonosov built a colored glass factory in the village of Ust-Rudnitsy, located not far from Oranienbaum (the modern city of Lomonosov). At this factory, he organized the production of various glass products and began to produce special colored opaque glasses, from which he created mosaic paintings. In parallel with the construction of the factory, Lomonosov, together with academician G.V. Richmann (1711 - 1753) studied the nature of electricity, observing thunderstorms. At the end of July 1753, Richmann was killed by lightning at his home when he was conducting experiments, and all opponents of enlightenment began to demand that they be stopped. Despite this, Lomonosov spoke at a public meeting of the Academy of Sciences and read the "Word about the phenomena of air, from the electric force occurring", one of the first noting the identity of atmospheric and "artificial" electricity obtained from electrostatic machines.

Lomonosov considered the spread of education among the Russian people one of his main tasks. The scientist has long been worried about the deplorable state of the academic gymnasium and university. At his suggestion and project, Moscow University was opened in January 1755. In the same year, Lomonosov submitted to print "Russian Grammar" - the first grammar textbook in Russia - and completed work on "Ancient Russian History", and in 1756 he read to the academicians "The Word on the Origin of Light ...", in which he outlined his theory of light and color phenomena. In 1758, M.V. Lomonosov was appointed head of the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences. He begins work on compiling a new "Russian Atlas". In parallel, he conducts experiments at low temperatures together with Academician Brown. For the first time, they managed to "freeze" mercury and prove that it is also a metal, but with a low melting point. In June 1761, the scientific world of Europe observed the passage of Venus across the disk of the Sun. Many saw this phenomenon, but only Lomonosov realized that the planet was surrounded by an atmosphere. Such a conclusion was made by him on the basis of the knowledge gained in the study of the scattering of light and its refraction in various media. In the summer of 1761, Lomonosov completed work on a textbook on mining - "The First Foundations of Metallurgy or Mining", where he placed two "Appendices", one of them - "On the Layers of the Earth" - became a brilliant essay on the geological science of the 18th century.

At the end of 1762, Lomonosov was awarded the rank of State Councilor. At this time, Lomonosov begins a new and last major enterprise. He expresses the idea that has long occupied him about the need to find a way through the Arctic Ocean to the east. At the suggestion of Lomonosov, an expedition was equipped under the command of I.Ya. Chichagov, who, already after the death of the scientist, twice (in 1765 and 1766) tried to go east, but each time she ran into solid ice.

By the end of the 1950s, Lomonosov's scientific fame reached its zenith. In May 1760 he was elected an honorary member of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in April 1764 an honorary member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. They were preparing to submit his candidacy to the Paris Academy, but it was too late. On April 15 (4), 1765, Lomonosov died of a cold at his home on the Moika. On April 19 (8) he was buried with a large gathering of people at the Lazarevsky cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.

Propylaea by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze (1784-1864) - based on the Athenian Parthenon. This is the entrance gate of the Königsplatz square, designed according to the antique model. Königsplatz, Munich, Bavaria.

Classicism begins its reckoning from the 16th century in the Renaissance, partially returns to the 17th century, actively develops and gains positions in architecture in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Between early classicism and late, the dominant positions were occupied by the baroque and rococo styles. The return to ancient traditions, as an ideal model, occurred against the backdrop of a change in the philosophy of society, as well as technical capabilities. Despite the fact that the emergence of classicism is associated with archaeological finds that were made in Italy, and the monuments of antiquity were located mainly in Rome, the main political processes in the 18th century took place mainly in France and England. Here the influence of the bourgeoisie increased, the ideological basis of which was the philosophy of enlightenment, which led to the search for a style that reflects the ideals of the new class. Ancient forms and organization of space corresponded to the ideas of the bourgeoisie about the order and the correct structure of the world, which contributed to the appearance of features of classicism in architecture. The ideological mentor of the new style was Winckelmann, who wrote in the 1750s-1760s. works "Thoughts on the imitation of Greek art" and "History of the arts of antiquity". In them, he spoke of Greek art, filled with noble simplicity, calm majesty, and his vision formed the basis of admiration for ancient beauty. The European educator Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (Lessing. 1729-1781) strengthened the attitude towards classicism by writing the work “Laocoön” (1766). which they considered baroque and rococo. They also opposed the academic classicism that dominated the Renaissance. In their opinion, the architecture of the era of classicism, true to the spirit of antiquity, should not have meant a simple repetition of ancient samples, but be filled with new content that reflects the spirit of the times. Thus, the features of classicism in the architecture of the 18-19 centuries. consisted in the use of ancient shaping systems in architecture as a way of expressing the worldview of the new class of the bourgeoisie and, at the same time, supporting the absolutism of the monarchy. As a result, France during the Napoleonic period was at the forefront of the development of classicist architecture. Then - Germany and England, as well as Russia. Rome became one of the main theoretical centers of classicism.

The residence of the kings in Munich. Residenz Munich. Architect Leo von Klenze.

The philosophy of architecture of the era of classicism was supported by archaeological research, discoveries in the field of development and culture of ancient civilizations. The results of the excavations, set out in scientific works, albums with images, laid the foundations of a style whose adherents considered antiquity to be the height of perfection, a model of beauty.

Features of classicism in architecture

In the history of art, the term "classic" means the culture of the ancient Greeks of the 4th-6th centuries. BC. In a broader sense, it is used to refer to art Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The features of classicism in architecture draw their motifs from the traditions of antiquity, which was personified by the facade of a Greek temple or a Roman building with a portico, colonnades, a triangular pediment, partitioning the walls with pilasters, cornices - elements of the order system. The facades are decorated with garlands, urns, rosettes, palmettes and meanders, beads and ionics. Plans and facades are symmetrical with respect to the main entrance. The color of the facades is dominated by a light palette, while the white color serves to focus attention on architectural elements: columns, porticos, etc., which emphasize the tectonics of the building.

Tauride Palace. St. Petersburg. Architect I. Starov. 1780s

Characteristic features of classicism in architecture: harmony, orderliness and simplicity of forms, geometrically correct volumes; rhythm; balanced layout, clear and calm proportions; the use of elements of the order of ancient architecture: porticoes, colonnades, statues and reliefs on the surface of the walls. A feature of classicism in architecture different countries was a combination of ancient and national traditions.

Osterley's London mansion is a classicist park. It combines the order system traditional for antiquity and echoes of Gothic, which the British considered the national style. Architect Robert Adam. Start of construction - 1761

The architecture of the Classical era was based on norms brought into a strict system, which made it possible to build according to the drawings and descriptions of famous architects not only in the center, but also in the provinces, where local craftsmen purchased engraved copies of exemplary projects created by great masters and built houses according to them. . Marina Kalabukhova

Classicism is an artistic and architectural style that dominated Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic direction. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as an example of an ideal, "correct" style.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore, harmony and logic are inherent in almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism.

Classicism in architecture

Classicism came to replace Rococo, which was subjected to public criticism for excessive complexity, pomposity, mannerisms, and an excess of decorative elements. Simultaneously European society more and more often began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The attention of the architects was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calmness and austerity characteristic of ancient architecture, especially Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.

The task of all objects created in the style of classicism is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time for harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental antique architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by a regular layout and clear forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were respected.

The aesthetics of classicism was favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classic rationalism.

The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter, a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. Symmetry prevails in the classical composition, following the composition of antiquity. The color scheme consists mainly of light pastel colors, which serve to emphasize the architectural elements.

The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism: new cities, parks, resorts appear.

In the 20s of the XIX century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic color. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).

The development of classicism in the world

Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive tendencies of social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of ​​the value of the human person. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of an ideal state system and harmonious relations between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when a person developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of the figures of classicism, this was an ideal time for history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.

There are three stages in the development of classicism in the world:

• Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
• Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
• Empire.

These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural trend. In fact, he, like European classicism, became the opposite of the Baroque and quickly replaced it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) trends: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.

It all started with the reign of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feeling was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “estate classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “enlightenment classicism”. As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, Yaroslavl.

Features of classicism

Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, logical accuracy. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.

Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. It should depict truth and virtue, engage in moral education.

Architecture and art are designed to contribute to the development of the individual, so that a person becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between various types arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.

Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as saturated shades of green, pink, purple.

Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines, a smooth pattern; the elements are repetitive and harmonious, and the forms are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on the roofs, rotundas. Often, antique ornaments were present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, no frills.

Representatives of classicism

Classicism has become one of the most common styles throughout the world. Throughout the period of its existence, many talented craftsmen have appeared, and a large number of projects have been created.

The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the work of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period, Jacques-Germain Soufflot, was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many principles of modernism.

In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire - the "imperial style". This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the XIX century. after which it was replaced by eclectic currents.

In Britain, the “regency style” became the equivalent of the Empire style (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). One of the founders of the British architectural tradition is Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist.

The most characteristic interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon the details that do not perform a constructive function.

In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings appeared in the spirit of the Parthenon.

In Russia, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed special skill.

Classicism in the interior

The requirements for the interior in the style of classicism were in fact the same as for architectural objects: solid structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time elegance. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simple and light. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.

Furniture of the Classicism era was made of precious woods, the texture, which began to perform a decorative function, acquired great importance. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of better quality and more expensive.

The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened, the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.

Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in execution.

The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, paintings.

The colors of this style often have clear, almost primary yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray, as well as bronze and silver jewelry. Popular color is white. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual details.

At present, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.

Fabrics can also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.

Architecture examples

Consider the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period is the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural trend.

In France of the era of Classicism, various public institutions were built, among which were business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times is the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Souflo. Initially, the project was conceived as the church of St. Genevieve, the patroness of Paris, but in 1791 she was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of the great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grand dome and a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. Parts of the building are clearly demarcated, you can see the transition from heavier forms to lighter ones. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.

The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.

The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combines functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the 1666 fire broke out; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.

St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant church. It has an elongated shape, like that of a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similarly to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a structure typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a building closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.

The main attraction of the cathedral is a wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome is a lantern crowned with a ball and a cross.

The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see the statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower - 12, and in the right one there is the "Big Floor" - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the dial diameter is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral stands a monument to Anna, the English queen of a previous era. At her feet you can see the allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are flanked by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).

The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with a cross is 120 meters.

The wrought iron openwork lattice work of Jean Tijoux (end of the 17th century) and carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.

As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient art and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the later works of the master, one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers were popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. AT last years life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.

Many talented architects, both Russians and those who came from abroad, worked in Russia during the era of classicism. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were able to show their talent to the fullest extent only here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Vallin-Delamot and the Scot Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and the Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoye Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, faience, and semi-precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into a forest.

If at the beginning of a new architectural period, a still unfamiliar style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century there appeared original Russian architects, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classical Western forms and merging with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday came during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.

The Academy of Arts revives the tradition of teaching its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions of architectural classics, but also to present Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.

This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn's buildings, as well as the Pashkov House, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on top of a hill, its facade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.

St. Petersburg was a more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon brought to life a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in terms of its plan and composition it is an original work.

Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend to it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the facade of the Admiralty, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Stock Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution to the difficult task of preserving the design of the spit of Vasilyevsky Island, and at the same time it is combined with ensembles of previous eras.

CLASSICISM (from lat. classicus- exemplary) - an artistic direction in European art at the turn XVII - XVIII - the beginning of the 19th century, was formed in France at the end of the 17th century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the severity of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and plots. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyaznin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception of ancient art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the direction). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of antique ones. In addition, the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (the belief in the omnipotence of the mind and that the world can be reorganized on a reasonable basis) had a huge influence on the formation of classicism.

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creativity as strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws, created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided works into "correct" and "incorrect". For example, even Shakespeare's best plays were classified as "wrong". This was due to the fact that Shakespeare's characters combined positive and negative traits. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by "purity" and unambiguity. So, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody any one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a hypocrite, or a hypocrite, or good, or evil, etc.

The main conflict of classic works is the struggle of the hero between reason and feeling. At the same time, the positive hero must always make a choice in favor of the mind (for example, choosing between love and the need to completely surrender to the service of the state, he must choose the latter), and the negative one - in favor of feelings.

The same can be said about the genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be introduced into comedy, and funny episodes into tragedy. In the high genres, "exemplary" heroes were depicted - monarchs, "commanders, who could serve as an example to follow. In the low genres, characters were depicted covered by some kind of" passion, that is, a strong feeling.

Special rules existed for dramatic works. They had to observe three "unities" - places, times and actions. Unity of place: classicist dramaturgy did not allow a change of scene, that is, during the entire play, the characters had to be in the same place. Unity of time: the artistic time of a work should not exceed several hours, in extreme cases - one day. Unity of action implies the presence of only one storyline. All these requirements are connected with the fact that the classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on the stage. Sumarokov: “Try to measure my hours in the game for hours, so that, forgetting, I can believe you *.

So, the characteristic features of literary classicism:

The purity of the genre (in the high genres, funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in the low genres, tragic and sublime ones);

The purity of the language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - vernacular);

Heroes are strictly divided into positive and negative, while positive heroes, choosing between feeling and reason, prefer the latter;

Compliance with the rule of "three unities";

The work should affirm positive values ​​and the state ideal.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state (and not a person) was declared the highest value) in conjunction with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, who requires everyone to serve for the benefit of society. Russian classicists, inspired by Peter's reforms, believed in the possibility of further improvement society, which seemed to them a rationally arranged organism. Sumarokov: " Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate sciences. The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic way. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that oppose reason, but at the same time lend themselves to education.

The main features of Russian classicism

Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.

Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative, have speaking names.

The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover (unsuccessful).

At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.

The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place (the action takes place in one place), action (1 storyline).

Start

The first classicist writer in Russia was Antioch Kantemir. He was the first to write works of the classic genre (namely, satires, epigrams, and others).

The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:

1st period: literature of the time of Peter the Great; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature - an intensive process of "secularization" (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.

Period 2: 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the Russian language.

3rd period: 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.

4 period: the last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the design of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies (1. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration; 2. Idea, idea of ​​presentation, image).

Trediakovsky and Lomonosov

Classicism received the next round of development in Russia under Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. They created the Russian syllabo-tonic system of versification and introduced many Western genres (such as madrigal, sonnet, etc.). The syllabo-tonic system of versification is a system of syllable-stressed versification. It includes two rhythm-forming factors - syllable and stress - and implies a regular alternation of text fragments with an equal number of syllables, among which stressed syllables alternate in a certain regular way with unstressed ones. It is within the framework of this system that most of the Russian poetry was written.

Derzhavin

Derzhavin develops the traditions of Russian classicism, continuing the traditions of Lomonosov and Sumarokov.

For him, the purpose of the poet is the glorification of great deeds and the condemnation of bad ones. In the ode "Felitsa" he glorifies the enlightened monarchy, which personifies the reign of Catherine II. The smart, fair empress is opposed to the greedy and mercenary nobles of the court: You only don’t offend, You don’t offend anyone, You see foolishness through your fingers, Only you don’t tolerate evil alone ...

The main object of Derzhavin's poetics is a person as a unique individuality in all the richness of personal tastes and predilections. Many of his odes are philosophical in nature, they discuss the place and purpose of man on earth, the problems of life and death: I am the connection of the worlds that exist everywhere, I am the extreme degree of matter; I am the center of the living, The trait of the initial deity; I decay in the dust with my body, I command thunder with my mind, I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god! But, being so wonderful, Where did I come from? - unknown: I couldn't be myself. Ode "God", (1784)

Derzhavin creates a number of samples of lyrical poems in which the philosophical intensity of his odes is combined with an emotional attitude to the events described. In the poem "Snigir" (1800), Derzhavin mourns the death of Suvorov: Why are you starting a song like a military flute, like a sweet snigir? With whom shall we go to war against the Hyena? Who is our leader now? Who is the rich man? Where is strong, brave, fast Suvorov? Severn thunders lie in a coffin.

Before his death, Derzhavin begins to write an ode to the RUIN OF HORROR, from which only the beginning has come down to us: The river of time in its aspiration Carries away all the deeds of people And drowns peoples, kingdoms and kings in the abyss of oblivion. And if anything remains Through the sounds of the lyre and the trumpet, Then eternity will be devoured by the mouth And the common fate will not go away!

The fall of classicism

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Books

• Russian literature. Theoretical and historical aspects. Textbook, Kirillina Olga Mikhailovna. In this manual, Russian literature is presented as part of world culture. The book examines the processes in the history of European culture that have had a serious impact on the domestic…