The comparative degree in Russian is a rule. Degrees of comparison of adjectives in Russian

Again, remember that the adjective ( Adjective) is a word that denotes a sign of an object, person or phenomenon. It answers the question "what?". Let's look at how to form degrees of comparison of adjectives in English language.

All adjectives are divided into two groups: qualitative ( qualitative) and relative ( relative). But not all of them can be compared. For example, "wooden" is a relative adjective and we cannot say "more wooden". And quality adjectives can be represented in positive (beautiful), comparative (more beautiful) and excellent (most beautiful) degrees of comparison. And now we will talk about each degree in detail.

Comparative degree of adjectives in English. Comparative degree

First, let's briefly talk about the positive degree. The positive degree is a simple form of the adjective: smart, cheerful, gentle. This form is found in dictionaries. For example: brave(brave), new(new), cold(cold).

The comparative degree is used when comparing the characteristics of two or more objects, persons. Words like “faster”, “higher”, “stronger” are comparative adjectives. How to form it?

1. To short adjectives (consisting of one or two syllables), you need to add the ending -er: cheap(cheap) - cheaper(cheaper), narrow(narrow) - narrower(already), long(long) - longer(longer).
   • -e, then we just add -r: close(close) - closer(closer).
   • If the adjective ends in -y, then -y changes to -i: lucky(lucky) - luckier(more lucky) easy(simple) - easier(simpler).
   • If the adjective ends with a vowel + consonant combination, then the final consonant is doubled: big(big) - bigger(more), hot(hot) - hotter(hot).
2. The comparative degree of long adjectives (more than 2 syllables) is formed using the words more(more) and less(less): expensive(expensive) - more expensive(more expensive), serious(serious) - less serious(less serious) comfortable(comfortable) - more comfortable(more comfortable).

Superlative adjectives in English. superlative degree

If a comparative degree requires two objects to compare characteristics, then a superlative degree requires several objects, among which we will single out one “best”. To form this degree, we do the following:

1. Add an ending to short adjectives -est: thin(thin) - the thinnest(the thinnest), fast(fast) - the fastest(the fastest). At the same time, the adjectives -e, -y and to a consonant letter they obey the same rules as in the formation of a comparative degree: the simplest(simplest), the busiest(busiest).
2. We use long adjectives with words most(most) and least(least): talented(talented) - the most talented(the most talented), interesting(interesting) - the least interesting(least interesting).

When forming this degree, it is necessary to use the article the as described in the examples above.

Special adjectives

And in English there is a list of adjectives that can be used both with suffixes and with words more/most, less/least.

Exception adjectives

There are also adjectives, the degrees of comparison of which are not formed according to general rule. These adjectives, as well as their forms, should be known by heart.

• Good – better – the best(good - better - best).
• Bad – worse – the worst(bad - worse - worse).
• Little – less – the least(small - less - smallest).
• Many/much – more – the most(many - more - the largest).
• old – older – the oldest(old - older - oldest).
• old – elder – the eldest(old - older - oldest) - about family members.
• Late – later – the latest/last(later - later - last / last in time).
• Late – the latter – the last(late - the second of the two listed - the last in order).
• near – nearer – the nearest(closer - closer - closest in distance).
• near – nearer – next/the next(closer - closer - next in time / next in order).
• Far – farther – the farthest(furthest - farthest - farthest).
• Far – further – the furthest(distant, distant - further - further / additional).

We suggest you study the table with degrees of comparison.

(*.pdf, 180 Kb)

These are the basic rules for the formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives in English. Don't forget to take a test at the end to check how well you remember this material.

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Test

Degrees of comparison of adjectives in English

Comparative adjectives show the differences between two objects that they modify ( larger, smaller, faster, higher). They are used in sentences that compare two nouns, as in this example:

Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than+ noun (object).

The second word to which the comparison is made can be omitted as it is clear from the context (last example).

Examples

• My house is larger than hers.
• This box is smaller than the one I lost.
• Your dog runs faster than Jim's dog.
• The rock flew higher than the roof.
• Jim and Jack are both my friends, but I like Jack better. ("than Jim" is understood)

Superlative adjectives

Superlative adjectives describe an object that has a higher or lower degree of quality ( the tallest, the smallest, the fastest, the highest). They are used in sentences when a subject is compared to a group of objects.

Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative + noun (object).

The group of objects with which the comparison is made can be omitted if it is clear from the context (last example).

Examples

• My house is the largest one in our neighborhood.
• This is the smallest box I"ve ever seen.
• Your dog ran the fastest of any dog ​​in the race.
• We all threw our rocks at the same time. My rock flew the highest. ("of all the rocks" is understood)

Creating a Simple Comparative and Superlative

Creating a comparative and superlative degree is quite simple. The form depends on the number of syllables in the original adjective.

Adjectives with one syllable

Add -er in order to form a comparative degree and -est for an excellent education. If the adjective consists of a consonant + a single vowel + a pronounced consonant, then the last consonant is doubled before the ending.

Adjectives with two syllables

Adjectives with two syllables can form a comparative degree by adding -er at the end, so with the word more before an adjective. Such adjectives form the superlative degree by adding -est and with the word most before an adjective. In many cases, both forms may be used, although the use of one of the forms may occur before the other. If you're not sure whether a two-syllable adjective can form a comparative or superlative, use this instead more And most. If the adjective ends in y, change the y to i before adding the ending.

Adjectives with three or more syllables

Those adjectives that consist of three or more syllables form a comparative degree using more before the adjective itself, and most before an adjective for the superlative degree.

Adjectives in comparative and superlative degrees (suppletive way of formation)

These common adjectives form the comparative and superlative in a special way.

Examples

• Today is the worst day I"ve had in a long time.
• You play tennis better than I do.
• This is the least expensive sweater in the store.
• This sweater is less expensive than that one.
• I ran pretty far yesterday, but I ran even farther today.

Degrees of comparison of adjectives have almost all qualitative adjectives. As you can guess from the title, quality adjectives are adjectives that indicate some quality of the noun: good, dark, prominent, talented. Such adjectives have comparative and superlative degree of comparison.

Comparative degree of comparison.

The comparative degree of the adjective expresses the manifestation of some quality of the noun to a greater or lesser extent than that of another noun: This car color is better than the previous one. Your drawing is prettier than mine. This plate is deeper than that one. Comparative degree of adjectives in Russian is simple and complex.

Simple degree of comparison of adjectives formed with the following suffixes:

- e: short - shorter, large - more, steep - steeper;

- her(s): majestic - more majestic, warm - warmer;

- she: young - younger, old - older.

When forming a comparative degree, adjectives sometimes change their root: small - less, bad - worse, good - better. Adjectives that have the form of a simple comparative degree do not change endings and do not change.

Compound degree of comparison of adjectives formed by particles more or less, which are added to the form of a positive (initial) degree of comparison: more difficult descent, less accessible mode of transport. Like the full form of the initial (positive) degree of the adjective, the compound degree of comparison is inflected for cases, genders and numbers.

Superlative degree of adjectives.

Superlative adjective assigns the lowest or highest degree of any quality to a noun: It was the coldest winter in 10 years. Like the comparative superlative degree of adjectives in Russian is simple and complex.

Simple superlative adjectives formed by adding suffixes to the stem -aysh-, -eysh-: great - the greatest, sweet - the sweetest, weak - the weakest, small - the smallest. The exception is the words good And bad- they are superlatives replaced by adjectives best And the worst.

In the formation of a complex superlative form, particles are used least/most And most: most/least accessible, most accessible. Both types of superlative adjectives change in case, number, and gender.

Norms of the use of the degree of comparison of adjectives.

1. The roughest an error in the use of degrees of comparison is the simultaneous use of both degrees of comparison with one noun: more talented, less kind. This mistake should not be made under any circumstances! The only exceptions are two forms of adjectives: the worst And the best.
2. Not all quality adjectives can form both forms of degrees of comparison, or rather, the suffix method is not available when using such adjectives: fighting, sick, brilliant, immortal, stormy, eternal, upper, strong-willed, possible, outstanding, deaf, heroic, proud, naked, distant, old, businesslike, familiar, cruel, brief, oblique, crooked, peaceful, dead, powerful, lower, unknown, excellent, general, advanced, last, positive, constant, right, similar, empty, early, developed, torn, blind, timid, controversial, urgent, predatory, colored, young, etc. Also, some of these adjectives cannot even form a comparative degree of comparison - for example, one cannot be more naked or less naked, more immortal or less.
3. There are times when theoretically education and use of superlatives possible, but logically not. For example, the sentence would be incorrect “Aivazovsky is the most talented Russian artist". The number of Russian artists is incredibly large, so to say that one of them most talented will be biased and incorrect. To emphasize the significance in this case, you can use the phrase "one of the most talented". Despite this, often for propaganda purposes or to express one's own opinion, such moments are acceptable. For example, you can say: "I believe Tchaikovsky is the greatest Russian composer of all time." Thus, it will be an expression of a specific subjective opinion that does not violate the lexical norms and logical connections of speech.

Quality adjectiveshave degrees of comparison. They express a greater or lesser degree of quality in a given subject compared to another subject.
For example: (My house is more beautiful than your house). sometimes the comparison takes place within the same object (increase or decrease) in different periods of its development, i.e. at the present moment, compared to its past state.
For example: (Demand for a product has become higher than last year).

Adjectives have two degrees of comparison:
comparative;
excellent.

1.Comparative adjective means that some feature is manifested to a greater or lesser extent in one subject than in another.
For example: I am happier than you. Your briefcase is heavier than mine. My dog ​​is smarter than yours.

The comparative degree is:
A) simple
B) complex

BUT) Simple comparative degree formed with suffixes:
"her" (s): For example: beautiful - more beautiful, smart - smarter, cold - colder;
"e" (with alternation of the last consonant of the stem or without alternation):
For example: big - more, short - shorter, sweet - sweeter;
"she": For example: old - older, young - younger.
Sometimes, when forming the comparative degree of an adjective, a different root is used.
Good is better, bad is worse, small is less.
Adjectives in the form of a simple comparative degree do not change and do not have endings!

B) Compound Comparative is formed from the full form of the positive degree of the adjective with the help of particles more and less.
Big - more (less) big, beautiful - more (less) beautiful.

2) Superlative adjectives.
The superlative degree shows that some feature is manifested in the given subject to the greatest extent, in comparison with the same feature in other homogeneous subjects.
This is my best game; He is the smartest boy in the class.

Superlatives are:
A) simple
B) complex
The superlative degree of an adjective can change by gender, number, and case.
(We approached the highest mountains).

BUT) simple superlatives formed with the help of suffixes "eysh", "aysh".
For example: stupidest, deepest, rarest, closest
Sometimes, when forming the superlative degree of an adjective, a different root is used.
For example: Good is the best, bad is the worst.
B) Compound Superlative is formed from the full form of the positive degree of the adjective using the particles most, most and least.
For example: Small - the smallest, the smallest, the least small, smart - the smartest, the smartest, the least smart.

Adjectives in the superlative degree, like the full forms of the positive degree of adjectives, change in gender, number and case.

Publication date: 01/28/2012 17:58 UTC

• Morphological analysis of the adjective in Russian.
• Full and short forms of adjectives. Declension and spelling of case forms of adjectives in Russian.
• The concept of an adjective. Morphological features of adjectives. Classes of adjectives in Russian.

Qualitative adjectives have degrees of comparison: positive(original form), comparative(comparative) And excellent(superlative). Grammar category degrees of comparison acts as a grammaticalized core of the functional-semantic category of graduality, the meaning of which is realized by multi-level linguistic means. The meaning of the degrees of comparison lies in the fact that the comparative degree conveys the intensity of a feature compared to the same feature in another object .

Scientific discussion

From Aristotle to the present, words that convey gradual value (measures, degrees, magnitudes of a sign, process, phenomenon, object), have been the object of study by many researchers 3 . M. V. Lomonosov in his "Russian Grammar" considered the degree of comparison of the category subjective assessment. Russian grammarians of the 19th century. these aspects are brought together. Two categories of quality grades have been established − non-relative(old, old, old) And relative(the oldest of ..., one is older than the other) .

Without naming the presented phenomena by the term gradient, which is used by modern scientists, linguists have described a number of linguistic phenomena that correspond to the very essence of graduality. All theories and descriptions of various quality levels from historical point of view represented an important perspective in the study of gradients. Starting from the XV century. in Russian there are all kinds of forms with a graduated meaning.

Attribute, procedurality, objectivity in a certain way (to a greater or lesser extent) correlate with the concepts degree, measure. Most of the words of the modern Russian language express changeable and measurable ( qualitative) sign: degrees of comparison (adjectives); formations with suffixes magnifying and diminutive (nouns); ways of verbal action with the meaning of measure; gradual oppositions in the lexical system of the language; gradational syntactic constructions; using gradation as a stylistic method. As graduated And graduated units, such words are considered that, due to their semantic and grammatical features, are capable of expressing one or another degree (measure) of the manifestation of a feature: “In everyday language, “compare” means to express one’s attitude, “evaluate”, “measure”, guided by our feelings and our passions."

Graduality– functional-semantic category with the meaning measures, degrees of manifestation sign, process, phenomenon, state, expressed by multi-level linguistic means. Comparative degree ( comparative) denotes such a variable feature that can manifest itself in an object to a greater or lesser extent than in another object. Wed: This question more difficultthe previous one. – This question more difficult,than the previous one. excellent degree ( superlative) denotes such a variable feature that manifests itself in an object to the greatest or least extent than in another object: This most difficulttopic under study. - This the most difficulttopic under study.

Comparative and superlative forms can be simple(synthetic) and complex(analytical).

Simple the form comparative degree has indicators - suffixes -her(s), -e: tall – highere(alternating s//w at the root of the word + truncation of the stem - suffix -ok-), strong – strongher (strong-to her) etc. From adjectives good, bad, small suppletive forms of comparative degree are formed: good is better, bad is worse etc. The simple superlative degree is formed by adding suffixes -eysh-, - aish-: highaishwow, strongeyshuy etc. For example: Leo Tolstoy is a geniuseyshuy fromwriters of the 20th century.

Complex the form comparative degree is formed by additional words more/less+ positive degree: more (less)high (kind).

Complex the form excellent degrees are formed in several ways:

• a) with the help of an additional (auxiliary) word (particles) most: most difficult, highest etc.;
• b) with the help of additional (auxiliary) words most, least: least difficult etc.;
• c) the combination "simple form comparative degree + pronoun in the genitive case Total(or all)": the most difficult (of all) and etc.;
• d) the combination "amplifying particle all + simple form of the comparative degree": The pain in my heart became allhote(M. Sholokhov).

In a sentence, a simple form usually performs a function predicate, and the composite can be like predicate, so definition. Wed: She was more beautifulhow he imagined her(L. Tolstoy).

A complex form of comparative and superlative degrees is formed from almost all qualitative adjectives. The simple form has limitations.

Forms of a simple comparative degree are not formed from adjectives:

• – with an absolute qualitative value: bald, blind, lame, mute, barefoot, deaf etc.;
• – based on [ w"], [well]: poor, hefty and etc.;
• - with suffix -sk-: friendskoh, enemyskuy etc.;
• - from some verbal adjectives with a suffix -to-: padtouh, movetouh, shattouy etc.;
• - with suffix -ov-/-ev-: badovoh, boevOh etc.;
• - with suffix -l-: unyloh, mouthlth etc.;
• - from individual adjectives that stand apart for historical reasons, for example proud, young and etc.

Simple superlative forms are not formed from adjectives:

• - with suffix -sk-: friendskuh, tragicskoh, enemyskuy etc.;
• - with suffix -k-: bastardtoooh, thundertoooh, ringingtouy etc.;
• - with suffix -ov-/-ev-: rowovoh, stroevoh, boevOh and etc.;
• - from adjectives proud, young etc.

excellent degree has two types of meaning:

• 1) manifestation of a sign in the highest degree compared to other items superlative): oldest ofworkers etc.;
• 2) expression extreme degree manifestations of a trait regardless of other objects (regardless of the large measure of the trait - elative): Got into stupidestposition, it raresthappening etc.

IN grammatical regarding complex shapes comparative And excellent degrees are no different from positive(initial) degree. Simple forms of the comparative degree are invariable, cf .: House(s) (pine(s), building(s)) above,how...

Syntactic(syntagmatic) terms the use of morphological heterogeneous formations in the Russian language is characterized by the following features.

1. Expressing the relative degree of presence of a feature, adjective in comparative or excellent degree is used as a gradual syntactic member - predicate or definitions. Wed:

So, reasoning, Selifan wandered at last into the most remote abstraction. Perhaps this prompted him another, more significant reason more serious, closer to the heart ... But the reader will learn about all this gradually and in due time, if only he has the patience to read the proposed story, which is very long, having after that to move apart wider and more spacious as it approaches the end that crowns the case (N. Gogol).

These are complex, analytical formations. The exponent is the word more(comparative degree) and words most or most(in superlatives). Superlative most stylistically neutral, and the word most is bookish. Wed:

Most typical cases; most simple question. - Disdainful of the prudent comfort of castling, he sought to create the most unexpected, the most bizarre correlation of figures (V. Nabokov).

2. Adjectives in comparative degrees, acting as definitions, can express the result of a subjective assessment.

The nuance of the meaning of a subjective assessment can be conveyed by lexical means, for example: elderly person (as opposed to old). Combined with the word more The adjective is used both in full and in short form: this question is more important: important(compound form); this question is more important: more important(simple form). short form more important conveys a state conceivable in time: At the moment this question more important.

Typical for the Russian language is a simple (synthetic) form of the comparative degree in -her, -her, -ee. It is homonymous with the form of the comparative degree of the adverb. Wed: he is modest(adv.); his demands are more modest(adj.).

excellent the degree of the adjective, acting as a nominal predicate, has three forms similar to the forms of the comparative degree: this question is the most (important): most (important): more important than all (everything). If the superlative expresses quality inanimate or animate object, then preference is given to the forms "most + full form of the adjective":

This suitcase the heaviest; His job the best.- Vronsky is one of the sons of Count Kirill Ivanovich Vronsky and one of the very best examples of gilded youth (L. Tolstoy).

• 3. Comparative degree in a function predicate-predicate is used in special comparative constructions in which the object of comparison is expressed in one way or another. It is formed in two ways:
• 1) by combining a simple form of a comparative degree with a genitive comparison: Wilson is more important than other birds(V. Mayakovsky);
• 2) by combining the compound form of the comparative degree, consisting of the word more and the short form of the positive degree, and the union Than: Wilson is more important than any other bird.

The first method should be considered the most common, because the use of "forms of the comparative degree is not limited to simple morphological rules. The types of formation and functioning of the degrees of comparison in the Russian language should be studied and assimilated in close connection with the syntactic and semantic conditions of their use" .

All qualitative-evaluative and most qualitative adjectives form degrees of comparison, expressing different degrees of quality. But in some cases they do not have degrees of comparison due to their semantics: adjectives like dumb, barefoot etc. designate absolute quality and logically do not allow a comparative or superlative degree. It is important to note that the comparative and superlative degrees denote different meanings as opposed to meaning positive degrees:

"She's in two meetings at once..."

(V. Mayakovsky)

Forms of the comparative degree with a prefix smarter, more fun, cheaper etc.), acting as a predicate, acquire a shade of "softened" comparative degree: He is younger than me; He will be smarter than all of us. -

And the man, from he was quick-witted,

He set off on a bear,

He planted a horn in her

What taller navel, lower liver

• (meaning "slightly higher/lower").
• (A. Pushkin)

Adjective forms in -her, -e, -she with prefix on- indicate the predominance of some quality in one of the compared objects: (book) more interesting; (boy) smarter etc.

Combined with the genitive case of definitive pronouns Total or all(which, but in essence, have become formants, indicators of superlatives) the comparative degree acquires the meaning of the superlative. Such stable combinations carry the meaning of the highest degree of quality by comparative opposition anything to other items in the aggregate and not from the same category. This is a complex form of the elative, which is not combined with the forms on -eysh-, -aysh-. For example:

Most of all, he was struck by the fact that from Monday he would be Luzhin (V. Nabokov); And the geese screamed, / Disappearing in the sky, / What is dearest of all / The native side ... (M. Isakovsky).

All three degrees are a gradation series: rough: rougher: roughest; coarse: coarser: coarsest etc.

In russian language comparative degree is often used to mean excellent. This usage distinguishes genitive of the second element with a comparative degree. It can also be used with superlatives: the best, the richest. In some cases, you can notice the "limited" meaning of superlatives - better (...) all others except one (two...).

Based on the system of degrees of comparison of Otto Jespersen, which excludes from consideration the superlative degree as a kind of comparative, we single out the degrees of graduation:

• 1.Superiority (>) more dangerous (better) than...
• 2. Equality(=) with just as dangerous (good) as...
• 3. lower degree(less dangerous (good) than... etc.

It's obvious that first and third steps are closely related because

in both cases is expressed inequality. There are two ways of expressing with the opposite meaning, which make it possible to change the relationship of the first and third steps to the reverse: worse than = less good than. Based on this, the following can be established equality: older than = less young than. Wed:

Levin himself did not remember his mother, and his only sister was older than him, so that in the house of the Shcherbatskys, for the first time, he saw that very environment of the old noble, educated and honest family, which he was deprived of by the death of his father and mother (L. Tolstoy).

Comparison Levin's sister is older than him does not mean that Sister is old and the comparative degree can therefore mean lesser degree than positive in the expression Sister is old. Similar offer Sister older than Levin says nothing about Levin's old age; on old age Levin will be implied if you add the adverb yet: The sister is even older than Levin. We see that this use of the word yet is not self-evident.

When negating a step superiority (1) Sister is not as old as Levin get the value either equality(2) or lower degree(3). When negating a step equality(2) get the value lower degree (3): less old than; younger than. Wed: And as old as V. The objection to this statement would be: Oh no, not as old as B, but much older.

There are designs proportional fit, in which the determining element represents a period of time, but does not have an explicit expression. In such sentences, the following meanings and features of their expression are revealed:

a) repetition of the comparative degree form:

Became getting darker and darker (= the longer it has continued, the darker became). He became more and more impatient; Heartache getting hotter(M. Sholokhov);

b) formant all together with the comparative degree forms a superlative degree: He said increasingly unintelligible.

V. V. Vinogradov pointed out that adjectives in - the most / - the most can have three meanings in modern Russian:

1) regardless of the large measure (limiting degree) attribute (elative value):

He is the smartest person; The weather is wonderful. - He began to tear out leaves and flowers in his hearts and sneezed from the smallest dust (V. Nabokov).

Some forms of the superlative degree break away from the paradigm and act in the meaning of the elative, i.e. in the sense of an absolutely greater degree of quality: the greatest scientist(does not mean the greatest) ,

• 2) excellent degrees: the truest of friends, the greatest poet,
• 3) comparative degree (meaning almost lost in modern Russian, but left traces in phraseology): upon closer inspection.

The most common is the use of forms on -most / -most in an elative sense. Such forms in free combinations are evaluative. Wed:

I got into the stupidest position; This is the rarest case, etc. - This the smartest, the most decent and the most talented man (N. Gogol); But nothing of the kind happened, he listened calmly, and when his father, who was trying to pick up most curious, most attractive(= "evaluative character") details, said, among other things, that, as an adult, he would be called by his last name, the son blushed, blinked, leaned back on the pillow, opening his mouth and shaking his head ... (V. Nabokov).

Gradual-evaluative value of the superlative form on -most / -most implemented in combination with the preposition from:the most ingenious of (musicians), oldest of (employees) etc. For example:

And as in my wagon ... there was a bed with clothes and linen, then in my misfortunes I honored myself happiest of mortals (A. Pushkin).

The elative value is very close to the category of subjective evaluation. Elative forms express a gradual meaning and serve to express the ultimate degree of quality without indicating a relationship to other objects: Tiny specks of dust floated in the air; Found a rare specimen.

Therefore, the formal means of expressing the meanings of measure and degree (gradation) in the field of qualitative adjectives (and qualitative adverbs) is morphological a level concerning the properties of morphemes and cases of analytic formation. As a grammaticalized core gradualism the category corresponding to it degrees of comparison - comparative, superlativeAndelative

• Cm.: Kolesnikova S. M. The semantics of gradualness and ways of its expression in modern Russian. M., 1998; Her own. Functional-semantic category of gradualness in modern Russian. M., 2010. S. 78-86.
• See additional: Falev I. A. On the question of degrees of comparison in modern Russian // Language and thinking. Issue. 9. M.; L. 1940; Nikulin A.S. Degrees of comparison in modern Russian. M.; L., 1937; Knyazev Yu.P. On the semantics of degrees of comparison of adjectives // Uchenye zapiski Tartu gos. university T. 524: Problems of intrastructural functional description of language. Tartu, 1980; Kolesnikova S. M. Degrees of comparison of adjectives and the intensity of the feature expressed by them // Russian language at school. 1998. No. 5.
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